s*********e
发帖数: 100 | 1 美国对美国人进行的放射性物质对人体伤害实验，是真的吗？对自己人都这么狠！还是
这些东西对人体没害啊？
这些实验包括一系列广泛的研究:
包括向智障儿童或出于良心拒服兵役者喂食放射性食物、
将镭棒插入学童的鼻子、
故意在美国和加拿大城市上空释放放射性化学物质、测量放射性尘埃对健康的影响。
核弹试验、
给孕妇和新生婴儿注射放射性化学物质、
辐照监狱囚犯的睾丸等等。
Human radiation experiments
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_
States
美国的研究人员已经进行了数千次人体辐射实验，以确定原子辐射和放射性污染对人体
的影响，通常对穷人、生病或无能为力的人造成影响。 [61]这些测试中的大多数是由
美国军方、原子能委员会或其他各种美国联邦政府机构执行、资助或监督的。
这些实验包括一系列广泛的研究，包括向智障儿童或出于良心拒服兵役者喂食放射性食
物、将镭棒插入学童的鼻子、故意在美国和加拿大城市上空释放放射性化学物质、测量
放射性尘埃对健康的影响。核弹试验、给孕妇和婴儿注射放射性化学物质、辐照监狱囚
犯的睾丸等等。
有关这些程序的许多信息都被分类并保密。 1986 年，美国众议院能源和商业委员会发
布了一份题为《美国核豚鼠：美国公民的三个十年辐射实验》的报告。 [62]在 1990
年代，艾琳·韦尔森为《阿尔伯克基论坛报》所做的关于辐射测试的报告促使比尔·克
林顿总统根据总统的行政命令成立了人体辐射实验咨询委员会，以监督政府的测试；它
于 1995 年公布了结果。韦尔森后来写了一本名为《钚档案》的书。
放射性碘实验
在 1949 年一项名为“绿色运行”的行动中，美国原子能委员会 (AEC) 将碘 131 和氙
133 释放到华盛顿汉福德基地附近的大气中，污染了 500,000 英亩（2,000 平方公里
）的区域，其中包含三个小镇。[63]
1953 年，AEC 在爱荷华大学开展了几项关于放射性碘对新生儿和孕妇健康影响的研究
。在一项研究中，研究人员给予孕妇 100 到 200 微居里（3.7 到 7.4 MBq）的碘 131
，以研究这些女性流产的胚胎，试图发现放射性碘在什么阶段以及在多大程度上穿过胎
盘屏障.在另一项研究中，他们给 25 名新生婴儿（36 小时以下，体重从 5.5 到 8.5
磅（2.5 到 3.9 公斤））口服或注射碘 131，以便他们测量量碘在他们的甲状腺中，
因为碘会进入那个腺体。 [64]
在另一项 AEC 研究中，内布拉斯加大学医学院的研究人员通过胃管给 28 名健康婴儿
喂食碘 131，以测试婴儿甲状腺中的碘浓度。 [64]
1953 年，AEC 赞助了一项研究，以发现放射性碘对早产儿和足月儿的影响是否不同。
在实验中，底特律哈珀医院的研究人员为 65 名体重为 2.1 至 5.5 磅（0.95 至 2.49
公斤）的早产儿和足月儿口服碘 131。 [64]
在阿拉斯加，从 1955 年 8 月开始，AEC 选择了总共 102 名因纽特人和阿萨帕斯坎印
第安人，他们将被用来研究放射性碘对甲状腺组织的影响，特别是在寒冷环境中。在两
年的时间里，测试对象被给予一定剂量的 I-131，并从他们身上收集唾液、尿液、血液
和甲状腺组织样本。放射性碘给药的目的和风险以及体液和组织样本的收集没有向测试
对象解释，AEC 没有进行任何后续研究以监测长期健康影响。 [64 ]
在 1960 年代的一项实验中，100 多名阿拉斯加公民不断暴露于放射性碘中。 [65]
1962 年，汉福德站点再次发布 I-131，沿其路径设置测试对象以记录其对他们的影响
。 AEC 还招募了 Hanford 志愿者在此期间摄入被 I-131 污染的牛奶。 [64]
铀实验
1946 年至 1947 年间，罗切斯特大学的研究人员将铀 234 和铀 235 以每公斤体重 6.
4 至 70.7 微克不等的剂量注射到 6 个人体内，以研究他们的肾脏在受损之前可以耐
受多少铀。 [67 ]
1953 年至 1957 年间，在马萨诸塞州总医院，威廉·斯威特博士在一项实验中向 11
名身患绝症、昏迷和半昏迷的患者注射了铀，以确定其作为针对脑肿瘤的化学疗法的可
行性。但其中一名患者有（一名是误诊）。斯威特博士于 2001 年去世，他坚称已获得
患者和近亲的同意。[68][69]
钚实验
从 1945 年 4 月 10 日到 1947 年 7 月 18 日，作为曼哈顿计划的一部分，18 人被
注射了钚。 [70]给药剂量范围为 95 至 5,900 纳米居里。 [70]
阿尔伯特史蒂文斯，一名被误诊为胃癌的男子，在加州大学接受了“癌症”治疗。
1945 年，旧金山医疗中心。负责加利福尼亚人体实验的曼哈顿计划医生约瑟夫吉尔伯
特汉密尔顿博士 [71] 在未经知情同意的情况下让史蒂文斯注射了 Pu-238 和 Pu-239
。史蒂文斯从未患过癌症。去除癌细胞的手术非常成功地去除了良性肿瘤，他在注射钚
的情况下又活了 20 年。 [72]自从史蒂文斯接受了高放射性 Pu-238 后，他在余生中
的累积剂量比任何人都高：64 Sv (6400 rem)。阿尔伯特史蒂文斯和他的任何亲戚都没
有被告知他从未患过癌症。他们被引导相信实验性的“治疗”奏效了。 1975年，阿贡
国家人类放射生物学实验室中心未经幸存亲属同意，偷偷拿走了他火化的遗体。一些骨
灰被转移到华盛顿州立大学的国家人体放射生物学组织库[72]，该库保存着死于体内放
射性同位素的人的遗体。
芝加哥大学比林斯医院的三名患者被注射了钚。 [73] 1946 年，芝加哥冶金实验室的
六名员工获得了被钚 239 污染的水，以便研究人员可以研究钚是如何被消化道吸收的
。 [67]
纽约州北部一家医院的一名 18 岁妇女被注射了钚。 [74]
涉及其他放射性物质的实验
二战结束后，范德比尔特大学的研究人员立即为田纳西州的 829 名孕妇提供了“维生
素饮料”，可以改善婴儿的健康。这些混合物含有放射性铁，研究人员正在确定放射性
同位素进入胎盘的速度。 [75] [76]由于这些实验，四名妇女的婴儿死于癌症，这些妇
女出现皮疹、瘀伤、贫血、头发/牙齿脱落和癌症。 [61]
从 1946 年到 1953 年，在马萨诸塞州的 Walter E. Fernald 州立学校，在一项由美
国原子能委员会和桂格燕麦公司赞助的实验中，73 名智障儿童被喂食含有放射性钙和
其他放射性同位素的燕麦片，以追踪“如何营养被消化了”。孩子们没有被告知他们被
喂食放射性化学物质；医院工作人员和研究人员告诉他们，他们正在加入一个“科学俱
乐部”。[75][77][78][79]
旧金山加利福尼亚大学医院对 29 名患者（其中一些患有类风湿性关节炎）进行全身照
射（100-300 rad 剂量）以获得军方数据。[80][需要更好的来源]
在 1950 年代，弗吉尼亚医学院的研究人员在陆军资助并与 AEC 合作的情况下，在他
们不知情或不同意的情况下，对严重烧伤的受害者进行了实验，他们中的大多数人都是
穷人和黑人。在实验中，受试者被暴露于额外的燃烧、实验性抗生素治疗和放射性同位
素注射。注射到一些患者体内的放射性磷 32 的量为 500 微居里 (19 MBq)，是健康个
体“可接受”剂量的 50 倍；对于严重烧伤的人来说，这可能会导致死亡率显着增加。
[81][82]
1948 年至 1954 年间，在联邦政府的资助下，约翰霍普金斯医院的研究人员将镭棒插
入马里兰州巴尔的摩市 582 名学童的鼻子中，作为腺样体切除术的替代方法。[83][84
][85]二战期间，对 7,000 多名美国陆军和海军人员进行了类似的实验。 [83]鼻镭照
射成为一种标准的医学治疗方法，并在超过 250 万美国人中使用。 [83]
在 1956 年沃尔特·E·弗纳尔德州立学校的另一项研究中，研究人员通过口服和静脉
注射方式给智障儿童提供放射性钙。他们还将放射性化学物质注射到营养不良的婴儿体
内，然后收集脑脊液以从他们的大脑和脊柱中进行分析。 [79] [86]
1961 年和 1962 年，10 名犹他州监狱囚犯采集了与放射性化学物质混合并重新注入体
内的血液样本。 [87]
美国原子能委员会资助麻省理工学院在 1961 年至 1965 年间为 20 人管理镭 224 和
钍 234。许多人是从新英格兰年龄中心挑选出来的，并自愿参与“老龄化研究项目”。
镭的剂量为 0.2–2.4 微居里 (7.4–88.8 kBq)，钍的剂量为 1.2–120 微居里 (44–
4,440 kBq)。[62]
在 1967 年发表在《临床调查杂志》上的一项研究中，孕妇被注射了放射性皮质醇，看
它是否会穿过胎盘屏障并影响胎儿。
辐射研究
1957 年，作为 Plumbbob 行动一部分的内华达州大气核爆炸后来被确定释放了足够的
辐射，导致暴露于爆炸后果的美国公民中超过 11,000 到 212,000 例甲状腺癌病例，
导致1,100 和 21,000 人死亡。 [89]
在冷战初期，在被称为 GABRIEL 计划和阳光计划的研究中，美国、英国和澳大利亚的
研究人员试图确定需要多少核尘埃才能使地球无法居住。[90][91]他们意识到，大气核
试验为他们提供了对此进行调查的机会。此类测试已在全球范围内分散了放射性污染，
对人体的检查可以揭示它被吸收的容易程度以及它造成的损害程度。特别令人感兴趣的
是骨骼中的 90 锶。婴儿是主要关注点，因为他们将有充分的机会吸收新的污染物。[
92][93]由于这一结论，研究人员开始了一项从世界各地收集人体和骨骼的计划，特别
关注婴儿。骨头被火化，骨灰分析放射性同位素。这个项目之所以保密，主要是因为这
将是一场公关灾难。因此，父母和家人没有被告知他们亲属的身体部位正在做什么。这
些研究不应与同一时期进行的乳牙调查相混淆。 [94]
。。。
辐照实验
1960 年至 1971 年间，国防部资助了大多数贫困和黑人癌症患者的非自愿全身辐射实
验，但他们没有被告知对他们做了什么。患者被告知他们正在接受可能治愈癌症的“治
疗”，但五角大楼正试图确定高水平辐射对人体的影响。参与实验的一名医生担心患者
会提起诉讼。他只在医疗报告上以他们的姓名首字母来称呼他们。他这样做是为了，用
他的话说，“患者将无法通过任何方式将自己与报告联系起来”，以防止“不利的宣传
或诉讼”。 [95]
从 1960 年到 1971 年，由国防原子能支持局资助的 Eugene Saenger 博士在辛辛那提
放射实验期间，在辛辛那提大学医学中心对 90 多名患有无法手术的肿瘤的贫困黑人晚
期癌症患者进行了全身放射实验.他伪造了同意书，并没有告知患者辐照的风险。患者
接受了 100 或更多拉德 (1 Gy) 的全身辐射，这在许多人中会引起剧烈疼痛和呕吐。
批评者质疑这项研究的医学原理，并认为该研究的主要目的是研究辐射暴露的急性影响
。 [96] [97]
从 1963 年到 1973 年，领先的内分泌学家 Carl Heller 博士对俄勒冈州和华盛顿州
囚犯的睾丸进行了辐照。作为他们参与的回报，他每月给他们 5 美元，当他们在试验
结束后必须接受输精管结扎术时，他给他们 100 美元。对这些人进行绝育的外科医生
说，有必要“避免让辐射诱发的突变体污染普通人群”。约瑟夫·汉密尔顿博士是与海
勒一起进行实验的研究人员之一，他说这些实验“有一点布痕瓦尔德的味道”。 [98]
1963 年，华盛顿大学的研究人员对 232 名囚犯的睾丸进行了辐射，以确定辐射对睾丸
功能的影响。当这些囚犯后来离开监狱并生了孩子时，其中至少有四人的后代出生时就
有先天缺陷。确切的数字是未知的，因为研究人员从未跟进受试者的状态。
Human radiation experiments
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_
States
article: Human radiation experiments
Researchers in the United States have performed thousands of human radiation
experiments to determine the effects of atomic radiation and radioactive
contamination on the human body, generally on people who were poor, sick, or
powerless.[61] Most of these tests were performed, funded, or supervised by
the United States military, Atomic Energy Commission, or various other U.S.
federal government agencies.
The experiments included a wide array of studies, involving things like
feeding radioactive food to mentally disabled children or conscientious
objectors, inserting radium rods into the noses of schoolchildren,
deliberately releasing radioactive chemicals over U.S. and Canadian cities,
measuring the health effects of radioactive fallout from nuclear bomb tests,
injecting pregnant women and babies with radioactive chemicals, and
irradiating the testicles of prison inmates, amongst other things.
Much information about these programs was classified and kept secret. In
1986, the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce released a
report entitled American Nuclear Guinea Pigs : Three Decades of Radiation
Experiments on U.S. Citizens.[62] In the 1990s, Eileen Welsome's reports on
radiation testing for The Albuquerque Tribune prompted the creation of the
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments by executive order of
president Bill Clinton to monitor government tests; it published results in
1995. Welsome later wrote a book called The Plutonium Files.
Radioactive iodine experiments
In a 1949 operation called the "Green Run", the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC) released iodine-131 and xenon-133 into the atmosphere near
the Hanford site in Washington, which contaminated a 500,000-acre (2,000 km2
) area containing three small towns.[63]
In 1953, the AEC ran several studies at the University of Iowa on the health
effects of radioactive iodine in newborns and pregnant women. In one study,
researchers gave pregnant women between 100 to 200 microcuries (3.7 to 7.4
MBq) of iodine-131, to study the women's aborted embryos in an attempt to
discover at what stage, and to what extent, radioactive iodine crosses the
placental barrier. In another study, they gave 25 newborn babies (who were
under 36 hours old and weighed from 5.5 to 8.5 pounds (2.5 to 3.9 kg))
iodine-131, either by oral administration or through an injection, so that
they could measure the amount of iodine in their thyroid glands, as iodine
would go to that gland.[64]
In another AEC study, researchers at the University of Nebraska College of
Medicine fed iodine-131 to 28 healthy infants through a gastric tube to test
the concentration of iodine in the infants' thyroid glands.[64]
In 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to discover if radioactive iodine
affected premature babies differently from full-term babies. In the
experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in Detroit orally administered
iodine-131 to 65 premature and full-term infants who weighed from 2.1 to 5.5
pounds (0.95 to 2.49 kg).[64]
In Alaska, starting in August 1955, the AEC selected a total of 102 Inuit
natives and Athapascan Indians who would be used to study the effects of
radioactive iodine on thyroid tissue, particularly in cold environments.
Over a two-year span, the test subjects were given doses of I-131 and
samples of saliva, urine, blood, and thyroid tissue were collected from them
. The purpose and risks of the radioactive iodine dosing, along with the
collection of body fluid and tissue samples was not explained to the test
subjects, and the AEC did not conduct any follow-up studies to monitor for
long-term health effects.[64]
In an experiment in the 1960s, over 100 Alaskan citizens were continually
exposed to radioactive iodine.[65]
In 1962, the Hanford site again released I-131, stationing test subjects
along its path to record its effect on them. The AEC also recruited Hanford
volunteers to ingest milk contaminated with I-131 during this time.[64]
Uranium experiments
It is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with
humans and might have adverse effect on public opinion or result in legal
suits. Documents covering such work should be classified 'secret'.
-- April 17, 1947 Atomic Energy Commission memo from Colonel O.G. Haywood,
Jr. to Dr. Fidler at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee[66]
Between 1946 and 1947, researchers at the University of Rochester injected
uranium-234 and uranium-235 in dosages ranging from 6.4 to 70.7 micrograms
per kilogram of body weight into six people to study how much uranium their
kidneys could tolerate before becoming damaged.[67]
Between 1953 and 1957, at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Dr. William
Sweet injected eleven terminally ill, comatose and semi-comatose patients
with uranium in an experiment to determine, among other things, its
viability as a chemotherapy treatment against brain tumors, which all but
one of the patients had (one being a misdiagnosis). Dr. Sweet, who died in
2001, maintained that consent had been obtained from the patients and next
of kin.[68][69]
Plutonium experiments
From April 10, 1945, to July 18, 1947, eighteen people were injected with
plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project.[70] Doses administered ranged
from 95 to 5,900 nanocuries.[70]
Albert Stevens, a man misdiagnosed with stomach cancer, received "treatment"
for his "cancer" at the U.C. San Francisco Medical Center in 1945. Dr.
Joseph Gilbert Hamilton, a Manhattan Project doctor in charge of the human
experiments in California,[71] had Stevens injected with Pu-238 and Pu-239
without informed consent. Stevens never had cancer; a surgery to remove
cancerous cells was highly successful in removing the benign tumor, and he
lived for another 20 years with the injected plutonium.[72] Since Stevens
received the highly radioactive Pu-238, his accumulated dose over his
remaining life was higher than anyone has ever received: 64 Sv (6400 rem).
Neither Albert Stevens nor any of his relatives were told that he never had
cancer; they were led to believe that the experimental "treatment" had
worked. His cremated remains were surreptitiously acquired by Argonne
National Laboratory Center for Human Radiobiology in 1975 without the
consent of surviving relatives. Some of the ashes were transferred to the
National Human Radiobiology Tissue Repository at Washington State University
,[72] which keeps the remains of people who died with radioisotopes in their
body.
Three patients at Billings Hospital at the University of Chicago were
injected with plutonium.[73] In 1946, six employees of a Chicago
metallurgical lab were given water that was contaminated with plutonium-239
so that researchers could study how plutonium is absorbed into the digestive
tract.[67]
An eighteen-year-old woman at an upstate New York hospital, expecting to be
treated for a pituitary gland disorder, was injected with plutonium.[74]
Experiments involving other radioactive materials
Immediately after World War II, researchers at Vanderbilt University gave
829 pregnant mothers in Tennessee what they were told were "vitamin drinks"
that would improve the health of their babies. The mixtures contained
radioactive iron and the researchers were determining how fast the
radioisotope crossed into the placenta.[75][76] Four of the women's babies
died from cancers as a result of the experiments, and the women experienced
rashes, bruises, anemia, hair/tooth loss, and cancer.[61]
From 1946 to 1953, at the Walter E. Fernald State School in Massachusetts,
in an experiment sponsored by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the
Quaker Oats corporation, 73 mentally disabled children were fed oatmeal
containing radioactive calcium and other radioisotopes, to track "how
nutrients were digested". The children were not told that they were being
fed radioactive chemicals; they were told by hospital staff and researchers
that they were joining a "science club".[75][77][78][79]
The University of California Hospital in San Francisco exposed 29 patients,
some with rheumatoid arthritis, to total body irradiation (100–300 rad dose
) to obtain data for the military.[80][better source needed]
In the 1950s, researchers at the Medical College of Virginia performed
experiments on severe burn victims, most of them poor and black, without
their knowledge or consent, with funding from the Army and in collaboration
with the AEC. In the experiments, the subjects were exposed to additional
burning, experimental antibiotic treatment, and injections of radioactive
isotopes. The amount of radioactive phosphorus-32 injected into some of the
patients, 500 microcuries (19 MBq), was 50 times the "acceptable" dose for a
healthy individual; for people with severe burns, this likely led to
significantly increased death rates.[81][82]
Between 1948 and 1954, funded by the federal government, researchers at the
Johns Hopkins Hospital inserted radium rods into the noses of 582 Baltimore,
Maryland schoolchildren as an alternative to adenoidectomy.[83][84][85]
Similar experiments were performed on over 7,000 U.S. Army and Navy
personnel during World War II.[83] Nasal radium irradiation became a
standard medical treatment and was used in over two and a half million
Americans.[83]
In another study at the Walter E. Fernald State School, in 1956, researchers
gave mentally disabled children radioactive calcium orally and
intravenously. They also injected radioactive chemicals into malnourished
babies and then collected cerebrospinal fluid for analysis from their brains
and spines.[79][86]
In 1961 and 1962, ten Utah State Prison inmates had blood samples taken
which were mixed with radioactive chemicals and reinjected back into their
bodies.[87]
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission funded the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology to administer radium-224 and thorium-234 to 20 people between
1961 and 1965. Many were chosen from the Age Center of New England and had
volunteered for "research projects on aging". Doses were 0.2–2.4
microcuries (7.4–88.8 kBq) for radium and 1.2–120 microcuries (44–4,440
kBq) for thorium.[62]
In a 1967 study that was published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation,
pregnant women were injected with radioactive cortisol to see if it would
cross the placental barrier and affect the fetuses.[88]
Fallout research
Cover of the final report of Project 4.1, which examined the effects of
radioactive fallout on the natives of the Marshall Islands
In 1957, atmospheric nuclear explosions in Nevada, which were part of
Operation Plumbbob were later determined to have released enough radiation
to have caused from 11,000 to 212,000 excess cases of thyroid cancer among U
.S. citizens who were exposed to fallout from the explosions, leading to
between 1,100 and 21,000 deaths.[89]
Early in the Cold War, in studies known as Project GABRIEL and Project
SUNSHINE, researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and
Australia tried to determine how much nuclear fallout would be required to
make the Earth uninhabitable.[90][91] They realized that atmospheric nuclear
testing had provided them an opportunity to investigate this. Such tests
had dispersed radioactive contamination worldwide, and examination of human
bodies could reveal how readily it was taken up and hence how much damage it
caused. Of particular interest was strontium-90 in the bones. Infants were
the primary focus, as they would have had a full opportunity to absorb the
new contaminants.[92][93] As a result of this conclusion, researchers began
a program to collect human bodies and bones from all over the world, with a
particular focus on infants. The bones were cremated and the ashes analyzed
for radioisotopes. This project was kept secret primarily because it would
be a public relations disaster; as a result parents and family were not told
what was being done with the body parts of their relatives. These studies
should not be confused with the Baby Tooth Survey, which was undertaken
during the same time period.[94]
Irradiation experiments
Between 1960 and 1971, the Department of Defense funded non-consensual whole
body radiation experiments on mostly poor and black cancer patients, who
were not told what was being done to them. Patients were told that they were
receiving a "treatment" that might cure their cancer, but the Pentagon was
trying to determine the effects of high levels of radiation on the human
body. One of the doctors involved in the experiments was worried about
litigation by the patients. He referred to them only by their initials on
the medical reports. He did this so that, in his words, "there will be no
means by which the patients can ever connect themselves up with the report",
to prevent "either adverse publicity or litigation".[95]
From 1960 to 1971, Dr. Eugene Saenger, funded by the Defense Atomic Support
Agency, performed whole body radiation experiments on more than 90 poor,
black, advanced stage cancer patients with inoperable tumors at the
University of Cincinnati Medical Center during the Cincinnati Radiation
Experiments. He forged consent forms, and did not inform the patients of the
risks of irradiation. The patients were given 100 or more rads (1 Gy) of
whole-body radiation, which in many caused intense pain and vomiting.
Critics have questioned the medical rationale for this study, and contend
that the main purpose of the research was to study the acute effects of
radiation exposure.[96][97]
From 1963 to 1973, a leading endocrinologist, Dr. Carl Heller, irradiated
the testicles of Oregon and Washington prisoners. In return for their
participation, he gave them $5 a month, and $100 when they had to receive a
vasectomy upon conclusion of the trial. The surgeon who sterilized the men
said that it was necessary to "keep from contaminating the general
population with radiation-induced mutants". Dr. Joseph Hamilton, one of the
researchers who had worked with Heller on the experiments, said that the
experiments "had a little of the Buchenwald touch".[98]
In 1963, University of Washington researchers irradiated the testicles of
232 prisoners to determine the effects of radiation on testicular function.
When these inmates later left prison and had children, at least four of them
had offspring born with birth defects. The exact number is unknown because
researchers never followed up on the status of the subjects.[99] |
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